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Fumarole minerals (or fumarolic minerals) are which are deposited by exhalations. They form when gases and compounds desublimate or precipitate out of condensates, forming mineral deposits. They are mostly associated with (as volcanic sublimate or fumarolic sublimate) following deposition from during an eruption or discharge from a or , but have been encountered on as well. They can be black or multicoloured and are often unstable upon exposure to the atmosphere.

, in this context called brimstone, is a common sublimate mineral and various , and occur in this environment associated with fumaroles and eruptions. A number of rare minerals are fumarole minerals, and at least 240 such minerals are known from volcano in Kamchatka, Russia. Other volcanoes where particular fumarole minerals have been discovered are in Italy and Bezymyanny also in Russia.


Origin and appearance
images, from volcano in Kamchatka. An electron micrograph, colour enhanced by optical microscopy, depicted width: 700 microns.]] In , minerals either form through from fumarole gases or through interactions of fumarole gases with country rock. The former are known as sublimates and the latter as incrustations. Some such deposits may also form through the interaction between liquid fumarole condensates and country rock and are not always formed by desublimation. Repeated cycles of primary deposition and secondary alteration may occur. Volcanic gases such as hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, and water can transport large amounts of elements, thus contributing to geochemical cycles on the surface and the formation of at depth. When these exhalations reach the atmosphere and cool, the minerals contained in them tend to precipitate out.

Volcanic fumarole minerals (as volcanic sublimate or fumarolic sublimate) form following deposition from during an eruption or discharge from a or . Burning produces enough heat to partially melt rocks and to generate exhalations of the mineral components embedded in coal. Coal seam fires often deposit fumarolic minerals over areas of a few square metres which can be detected by airborne imagery. Coal fires can mobilize toxic . Fumarole minerals have also been found in on and possibly in a sample returned from the by the probe Chang'e-5.

Fumarole deposits have been used to identify anomalies and to reconstruct processes.

Fumarole exhalations are often black or multicoloured, and tend to develop typical zonations. Common components are compounds and elemental sulfur. In the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes in Alaska the fumarole minerals form both thin crusts in the vents, mixtures with tephra deposits and coloured outcrops and mounds at the sites of former fumaroles. Deposits at Tolbachik volcano have shapes likef crusts, small plates and globules.

Typical components of fumarole minerals are , , and , with the exact composition different between volcanoes, individual vents at volcanoes and different temperatures of the same vent. Fumarolic minerals are often unstable and are eroded or decompose, in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes in Alaska it took less than a century for almost all fumarole mineral deposits to disappear although others remained and were later used to identify former fumarole vents. Thus, many fumarole minerals are rare and many rare minerals are fumarole minerals. Some fumarolic minerals have been found in extinct volcanoes and could exist in rocks as well, however. Unique textures occur such as bubble-like structures, which may form when the liquid that deposits the minerals evaporates.


Volcanoes
Research on the mineralogy of fumarole minerals has been conducted in Central America, Russia and Europe, with detailed publications on in , in , where research goes back to the early 19th century and in Italy, in Japan, and in Russia, and Mount St. Helens in the United States. deposits containing fumarolic desublimates are found at and volcanoes in the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes. volcano in the is particularly known for the numerous mineralizations its fumaroles have produced and for the presence of -rich precipitates. Among the elements found there are -- alloys. Various -based minerals have been identified at the in . Fumarolic minerals have also been reported from the Western Andes in Bolivia.

The most fumarolic minerals have been found at volcano in , Russia; Tolbachik also has one of the most diverse mineral assemblages in the world, with a number of "" minerals. The high temperature and oxidizing regime of exhalations which transport the elements at Tolbachik facilitates mineral deposition. A large assemblage of and a number of - selenite and copper-based fumarolic minerals were discovered at volcano, , . Many of these include polymeric units. About 240 minerals have been identified at Tolbachik, close to a record, 40 of them only incompletely studied. Elemental gold linked to chlorides at Tolbachik has been interpreted as gold transported by chlorine-rich oxidizing environments. Specimens of fumarole minerals from Tolbachik and Kudryavy are hosted by the Fersman Mineralogical Museum in .

Historical of volcano contain fumarolic minerals. Various fumarole minerals have been discovered at volcano in Italy, where the mineralogy has changed since 1987 and 1990 due to hotter fumarole exhalations, yielding increased and sulfur salt concentrations. Fumarolic minerals have also been encountered in multiple in .


Minerals discovered in fumarole areas
+ !Mineral !Formula !Location !Date described !Ref
Kudryavy, Russia2008
Allochalcoselite
Aluminocoquimbite Grotta del' Alume, Vulcano, Italy2010
Aluminopyracmonite La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy2018
Arsmirandite Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia2020
Axelite Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia2022
Baliczunicite La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy2013
Belomarinaite Toludskoe lava field, Tolbachik, Russia2019
Belousovite Yadovitaya fumarole, Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia2018
BlossiteαIzalco, El Salvador1987
Bubnovaite Naboko cone, Tolbachik, Russia
Burnsite Tolbachik2002?
Kudryavy, Russia2004
Calciolangbeinite Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia2022
Campostriniite La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy2015
Cannizzarite La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy
Cesiodymite Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia2018
Chubarovite Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia2015
Cryptochalcite Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia2018
Cuprodobrovolskyite Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik2023
Cupromolybdite New Tolbachik scoria cones, Tolbachik, Russia2012
D'ansite Vesuvius and Vulcano, Italy2012
Demartinite La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy2007
DemicheleiteandLa Fossa, Vulcano, Italy2010 and 2008
Dobrovolskyite Great Tolbachik fissure eruption, Kamchatka peninsula, Russia2021
Elasmochloite
Eldfellite
Ermakovite Fan-Yagnob coal deposit, 2022
Grigorievite Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia2015
Naboko scoria cone, Tolbachik, Russia2018
Karpovite First Cinder Cone, Tolbachik, Russia2018
Knasibfite La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy2008
Koksharovite , Russia2015
Kristjánite Fimmvörðuháls, Iceland2010
Kudriavite Kudryavy, Russia2004
Lehmannite Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik2020
Leonardsenite Eldfell, , Iceland2015
Lesyukite First Cone, Tolbachik, Russia2007 or earlier
La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy2010–2011
Majzlanite Yadovitaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia2019
Manuelarossiite Vesuvius volcano, Italy2024?
Medvedevite Toludskoe lava field, Tolbachik, Russia2020
Napoliite Vesuvius, 1994 rocks2010-2020
Nishanbaevite Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia2022
Oskarssonite , Iceland2018
Ozerovaite Second Cinder Cone, Tolbachik, Russia2019
Paradimorphite Solfatara, Campi Flegrei, Italy2022
Parageorgbokiite Yadovitaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia2007
Parascandolaite Vesuvius, Italy2014
Parawulffite Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia2014
Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia2020
Pliniusite Tolbachik, Russia2022
Prewittite Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia2013
Pseudolyonsite New Tolbachik scoria cones, Tolbachik, Russia2011
Puninite Second scoria cone, Tolbachik, Russia2017
Rhabdoborite Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia2020
Russoite , , Italy2018
Ryabchikovite Arsenatnaya, Tolbachik2023
Sbacchiite Vesuvius, Italy2019
Shcherbinaite , 1983
Stoiberite "Y fumarole", Izalco, El Salvador1979
Therasiaite La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy2014
Thermessaite La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy2021
Topsøeite , Iceland2018
Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia2014
Vasilseverginite Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia2021
Wrightite Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia1983
Yavapaiite
Ziminaite Bezymyanny, Russia2018
Zincobradaczekite Yadovitaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia2020


Gallery
File:Color SEM 5.jpg|Fumarole minerals in natural colours File:Color SEM 1.jpg|Fumarole minerals in natural colours, Mutnovsky, Kamchatka File:Color SEM 6.jpg|Fumarole minerals in natural colours, Tolbachik, Kamchatka File:RM2447-Belomarinaite.jpg|Non-SEM photo of belomarinaite from Tolbachik, Kamchatka


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